Among the earliest screen stars in the Golden Age of Hollywood, few have expertly mesmerised all that (the created image of) Marlene Dietrich has. The bisexual German actress, seen in The Blue Angel (1930), Morocco (1930), and Shanghai Express (1932), and fashion icon cultivated a sensual, mysterious, and commanding image, all while challenging notions of femininity and restraint, defying socials norms regarding sexuality and fashion, and simultaneously refusing to comply with Hitler’s threat (Bach, 1992; Kennison, 2002; Constable, 2019). Dietrich was the first Hollywood film star to demand (in contract) a percentage of the profits; mainly wore men’s clothes; openly flirted with women and men and had several affairs during her marriage. Many biographies have been written about her, and except for her own autobiography and documentary, she has classified them all as untrue.
Born into an upper-middle-class Berlin family in 1901 with musical ambitions, she was led to stage and screen after an injury prohibited her from pursuing violin studies (Bach, 1992). Dietrich owes her career to Josef von Sternberg, who casted her in The Blue Angel (1930) and brought her to Hollywood, where she evolved into an immortal screen goddess. While her contributions to the film and fashion industry are world renowned, her political activism should not be overlooked. In 1939, at the start of World War II, Dietrich became an American citizen, openly defying Hitler, and his ideology, and was a firm advocate for the American war effort, selling war bonds and entertaining American soldiers to boost their morale (Bach, 1992). The last fifteen years of her life she spent as a hermit living in Paris as, by her standards, she was unable to maintain the image she had so delicately designed for herself. Plastic surgery and soft-focus camera lenses were her last resort before alcohol and drug abuse, and a broken leg prevented her from continuing her performances. Dietrich’s contributions to the Hollywood scene, her progressive attitude in matters of fashion and sexuality, and political activism, are connected to elements of second wave feminism, which still pertain to contemporary Western society and challenge the hegemonic heteronormative and patriarchal standards.
Feminism & Film
Dietrich uncovers, on and off screen, how a woman asserts herself in a world where all rules are made by men, reshaping the female hero, and challenging the damsel in distress stereotype with the seductive femme fatale archetype (Constable, 2019; Fellows, 2019). The former represents a woman's innocence, helplessness, and need to be saved by men, whilst the latter is an embodiment of women's independence as she utilises her sexuality, charm, and beauty to manipulate men in order to accomplish her goal (Fellows, 2019; Kennison, 2002). Dietrich’s characters, for example in The Scarlet Empress (1934), The Devil is a Woman (1935), and Shanghai Express (1932), succeed in a men’s world by deploying feminine resources, thus gaining success, as femme fatale, on her own terms (Constable, 2019; Fellows, 2019). While characterised by confidence, manipulation, power, and seduction, Dietrich’s crafted persona can be split into two dichotomies: glamorous and loving mother (feminine traits), and manipulative and confident woman (masculine traits). Her role in Morocco (1930) portrays the alternation between the dichotomies; while it tells the story of a woman who abandons everything for love (feminine), Dietrich also appears wearing a men’s tuxedo and top hat and sharing the first on screen kiss with a woman (masculine). These contributions to Hollywood cinema challenge the prevalent representation of female heroes, who only succeeded once they conformed to masculine standards and values (Constable, 2019). The femme fatale or female hero is an analogy to second wave feminism’s focus on (gender) equality as female characters are no longer exclusively written in relation to men, but have their own narrative and identity (Arneil, 1999; Constable, 2019).
When compared to contemporary Western society, Dietrich's attempts to broaden a more diverse representation of female film narratives proved to be a feeble attempt: men continue to rule the big screen, while women are left with supporting roles that adhere to their assigned gender roles and stereotypes, recurrently still the damsel in distress (Women Inc., 2016; Women Inc., 2021). As aforementioned, but noteworthy to reiterate, is Dietrich’s achievement to be the first actor to receive a percentage of the profits made from films that she starred in (Bach, 1992; Constable, 2019). She was a true pioneer for the Hollywood cinema industry, redefining the story of female characters and being one of the first to perform the femme fatale, whilst striving for and succeeding in obtaining fair compensation, as a result she became the highest-paid Hollywood star. However, the assertion that these efforts were acts of feminism is debatable at the least since Dietrich did not press for fair work compensation to set a new precedent; rather, she simply thought it was just to herself (Bach, 1992; Constable, 2019). These efforts illustrate her work ethic, professionalism, and craftsmanship, for which she is still known. Dietrich's achievements have become emblematic of second wave feminism and have permeated into the film industry, where a more diverse representation of women is gradually becoming the norm, even though the motivations for these efforts—maintaining her self-created image and receiving equitable pay for her work—were purely individualistic.
Sexuality & Gender
Berlin-born Marlene Dietrich was known, apart from her achievements and contributions within the Hollywood industry, for being openly bisexual and gender fluid (Bach, 1992; Constable, 2019; Kennison, 2002). Kissing a female co-star on camera, engaging in numerous affairs with both women and men, and dressing in men’s clothing on and off screen, while utilising her feminine characteristics: Dietrich's sexuality served as the focal point of her persona. She strongly rejected any notion of being androgynous and insisted that she was perfectly content to be a woman, nevertheless, Dietrich persistently engaged in double drag: never truly being androgynous and constantly experimenting with the concepts of masculinity and femininity, and thus appealing to all audiences, gay and straight, female and male (Kennison, 2002, p. 150). The carefully curated image that was Marlene Dietrich lived in a sexual no woman’s and no man’s land, being every man’s mistress and every woman’s lover. Given that she grew up in Berlin, where the underground queer ballroom scene was quite extensive and thus exploring sexuality early on, it is not strange that her lifestyle caused controverse in compulsive heterosexual America (Bach, 1992; Constable, 2019; Rich, 1980). Berlin and America were in terms of sensuality diametrically opposed, the former normalising its existence, while the latter was blatantly prude towards lesbianism to sustain masculine and heteronormative hegemony. It can be argued that Dietrich - through her personal life and femme fatale characters - embodied Rich’s lesbian existence within the lesbian continuum, resisting the existing patriarchal standards as she was emotionally, sexually, and financially independent from men (Rich, 1980; Fellows, 2020). Marlene Dietrich’s persona serves as a beacon of queer representation in classical Hollywood cinema, denaturalising gender identities from rooted in biology to culturally coded performances - clarifying the distinction between Berlin and America's reception -, whilst being entirely agentic over her own sexuality. On and off screen, Dietrich embodies simultaneously the passive femininity of spectacle and the active masculine agency, fully embodying queerness.
Dietrich navigated as queer star persona in the hegemony of the heteronormative and patriarchal Hollywood film industry, symbolising the potentiality queerness in an industry that rendered queers invisible, non-existent, and absent (Fellows, 2020; Kennison, 2002). Her efforts paved the way to a more diverse representation of sexuality in cinema, however, in contemporary Western society, the queer community is mainly one-dimensionally and stereotypically portrayed in supporting roles, and often performed by heterosexual actors (McInroy & Craig, 2016). Queer characters are often characterised as comedic relief, villains, or criminals. Furthermore, they generally have mental or physical health issues, enjoy fashion or theatre, and are frequently the targets of discrimination and violence, necessitating adult or institutional protection. The limited representation of the queer community in the media, results in fewer role models for young queer people, negatively impacting their identity and potentially increasing alienation and isolation (McInroy & Craig, 2016). Regarding queer feminism in modern Western society, Dietrich's contribution to the Hollywood scene remains of unparalleled value and significance.
Feminism & Fashion
Marlene Dietrich’s image was carefully curated in collaboration with her mentor, film director Josef von Sternberg, creating a sense of ambiguity and androgyny, challenging the male hierarchy of the film industry and the restrictive sexual norms (Constable, 2019; Fellows, 2020; Kennison, 2002). She was the first woman on screen to appear in men’s clothing, her trademark being a tuxedo and a top hat, incorporating classic elements of the 1920’s lesbian Berlin underground ballroom scene and gay drag. She insisted on fashioning her own costumes for films, frequently drawing (inspiration) from her own wardrobe at home, experimenting with masculinity and femininity, composing one element of double drag (Fellows, 2019; Kennison, 2002). Outfit changes between the feminine, glitter dresses and ball gowns, and the masculine, tuxedo, and tails, depended upon the audience, however calculated to appeal to both: the former when she performed for men, the latter for women. Dietrich's androgynous attire complemented her seductive femme fatale performance; fashion expresses her constructed gender fluid and androgynous image. Woolf’s concept of androgyny correlates with Dietrich’s notion and use of fashion, liberating her from the societal gender discourse and the restrictions of the female gender (Woolf, 2021). She was very conscious of the power of fashion, dressing for the image, not for herself - she rather wore jeans all day-, not for women or men, and not for the queer community (Fellows, 2019; Kennison, 2002). Her appearance was a cultivation of all the parts she ever performed on screen, and as soon as plastic surgery and soft-lens cameras could no longer uphold the image so carefully designed over the years, she withdrew herself to a hermit’s life (Bach, 1992; Constable, 2019). Dietrich understood that fashion is a means of communication, and that clothing translates social and cultural identities, she utilised it to free herself from the hierarchical and patriarchal gender discourse by dressing androgynous.
Dietrich wearing trousers portrayed more than her communicated image, it (together with the women who followed) symbolised second wave feminism and their need and desire for equality, ability to work, and sexual freedom. Fashion (as means of communication) echoes societal oppression and liberation, women’s ability to wear pants embodies their possibility for education and (non-traditional) employment (Arneil, 1999; Kennison, 2002). While pants have inserted themselves in the wardrobe of women, they are still stereotypically seen as masculine and skirts as stereotypically feminine. It is becoming more apparent (in mainstream media) that gender is fluid, as Dietrich showed decades ago, therefore reopening the conversation of fashion and the possibilities that it holds to challenge the hegemonic heteronormative discourse. Whereas once women had to struggle for the right to wear pants and thereby express stereotypical masculine traits, men are now battling for the right (without risking and experiencing societal judgement) to wear skirts and identify with and behave more in line with stereotypical feminine characteristics. Marlene Dietrich was a pioneer regarding using fashion to communicate ideal socials norms and values, whilst simultaneously challenging the heteronormative and patriarchal hegemony.
Political Activism
Apart from her countless notable Hollywood performances, outspoken sexuality, and daring wardrobe choices, Dietrich’s legacy includes her acts as political antifascist activist, and is seen as a national hero in America and a traitor in Berlin. She valued tolerance and independence, two ideals that she saw quickly eroding under Hitler's rule, prompting her to decline his government's offer to star in German propaganda. Soon after, she renounced her German citizenship to become an American and advocated for American soldiers: Dietrich was tenacious in her efforts to sell war bonds, recorded anti-Nazi German albums for the Office of Strategic Services, and frequently performed on stage near the front to boost the troop’s morale (Bach, 1992). Her popularity among Americans grew and she was recognised nationally and internationally for her activities in wartime. In 1945, she was rewarded with the title of daughter of the Seventy-first Infantry Regiment of the army and in 1947, she was awarded the Medal of Freedom by the government of the United States. The latter being the highest honour an American citizen can attain. A true hero in the eyes of Americans, but a traitor, who openly defied national duty and purpose, in the eyes of the German population. As Hitler’s fascist ideology did not align with her ideals and values, Marlene Dietrich courageously broke free from geographical nationalist expectations.
Dietrich’s political narrative illustrates the intertwinement of agency, nationalism, and the objective matter of the geographical location in which one is born. No one has influence on the country one is born in, including that country’s ingrained ideology, however, publicly resisting said ideology often backfires in criticism. Marlene Dietrich was not the first to do so and has certainly not been the last. With the current Iranian scenario, one is once again forced to face the reality and consequences when renouncing the nationalist ideology (BNN VARA, 2022). Women are risking their lives by cutting their hair as an act of defiance against the sexist and patriarchal philosophy of the Iranian government. Birthplace and nationalism should not determine one's own norms and values, it should be permitted for an individual to hold an ideology that differs from that of their country of birth. In this regard, Dietrich serves as an example and beacon of hope, who, from within the security of her privileged position as a white Western woman from a middle-upper social and economic class, had the possibility of choosing her own path.
The Dietrich Myth
Marlene Dietrich is, with her devil-may-care attitude, more than a bisexual actress, fashion icon and political activist, she is a symbol for second wave feminism, attaining fair work compensation, sexual freedom, and geographical liberation, all while maintaining a carefully curated image. This seductive, sensual, mysterious, and yet masculine image was her pride and once it became impossible to uphold it, according to her own standards, she graciously disappeared from the public world. Dietrich was a true pioneer in regard to film, sexuality, fashion, and politics, incredibly progressive for her time, and thus, a true feminist. However, it should be noted that she was able to do so as she operated from a privileged position as a white Western woman with a middle-upper class socio-economic status. Her activist efforts still pertain to this day: using behaviour (sexuality and work) and fashion as means of communication in challenging the existing hegemonic heteronormative and patriarchal discourses, as well as breaking free from political nationalist obligations. Marlene Dietrich was a role model for women, a sex symbol for men, but above all, an iconic feminist to all.
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